The MBEI integrates two established methodologies: a bottom-up approach based on burned area and a top-down approach based on FRP (Vermote et al., 2009; Wiedinmyer et al., 2006). Active fire detections were sourced from the MODIS Near-Real-Time product (MCD14DL). To assess uncertainty stemming from detection confidence, we created two parallel processing streams using fire pixels from both Aqua and Terra satellites (2003–2023): one including all detected fires, and another restricted to fires with medium-to-high confidence (> 30 %). In addition, we introduced combination in key input variables: the bottom-up algorithm was driven by two alternative aboveground biomass (AGB) datasets (Biomass_cci and GlobBiomass), while the top-down algorithm utilized two different biome maps (8-class and 30-class) to define emission coefficients. For consistency, all input datasets were resampled to a common 0.1° spatial resolution and monthly temporal resolution. A comprehensive list of the datasets used in this study is provided in Table 1.

To quantify global biomass burning emissions and their associated uncertainties, we constructed the MBEI using a multi-source ensemble framework. Unlike conventional approaches that rely on a single algorithm, this framework operates by generating an ensemble of eight independent sub-inventories (see Table 2). This design is explicitly structured to capture the structural uncertainty stemming from the fundamental mechanistic discrepancies between bottom-up (burned area-based) and top-down (fire radiative power-based) methodologies. Rather than obscuring these differences through data fusion, the MBEI leverages them to define the uncertainty bounds of the estimates. Consequently, for each 0.1° grid cell, we provide the ensemble mean as the central estimate, while delineating the uncertainty envelope through two metrics: the standard deviation, representing dispersion, and the maximum and minimum bounds, defining the uncertainty range. The overall workflow is illustrated in Fig. 1.

Long-term trends in biomass burning emissions (2003–2022) were quantified using the Theil-Sen median trend estimator, with statistical significance assessed by the Mann–Kendall (MK) test (Mann, 1945; Sen, 1968). This non-parametric approach is particularly suitable for geophysical time series like emission data, as it is robust to outliers and does not assume a normal distribution.

The Theil-Sen estimator calculates the median of the slopes between all pairs of data points in the time series, making it robust to outliers (e.g., emission peaks from extreme fire years) and providing a stable estimate of the long-term trend. The slope is calculated as: 14slope=medianxj-xij-i1≤i<j≤n where slope is the estimated trend, xi and xj are the data values at time points i and j, and n is the length of the time series.

CO₂ is a principal greenhouse gas and the most widely studied species in biomass-burning inventories; accordingly, Sect. 3.1–3.4 focus on CO₂, and results for other species are provided in the Supplementary Information. For 2003 to 2023, the framework-mean global annual emissions for all species are summarized in Tables 3 and S5 The framework-mean CO₂ emission is 7303.63 Tg yr⁻¹, and the associated uncertainty, quantified as the range of annual means across the eight sub-inventories in the ensemble, spans 4400.08 to 9656.89 Tg yr⁻¹.

Figure 2 shows the highly heterogeneous spatial pattern of mean annual CO₂ emission fluxes (the spatial patterns for other major pollutants are presented in Fig. S6). Global emission activities are largely concentrated in tropical and subtropical regions, characterized by high emission fluxes (> 300 g m⁻² yr⁻¹). Within these areas, the most intense emission hotspots (> 500 g m⁻² yr⁻¹) are clearly identified over the Congo Basin, surrounding savannas, and parts of Southern Africa. This high spatial concentration of intense burning directly translates to Africa's dominant role in the global emission budget. Based on regional statistics (Global 14 regions defined in Fig. S3), Southern Hemisphere South Africa (SHAF) and Northern Hemisphere South Africa (NHAF) collectively contribute 49.2 % of global CO₂ emissions (29.2 % and 20.0 %, respectively). Furthermore, Southern Hemisphere South America (SHSA, 15.1 %), Boreal Asia (BOAS, 7.0 %), and Southeast Asia (SEAS, 5.9 %) also stand out as major source regions for global biomass burning.

The dominant types of biomass burning vary substantially by region (see Fig. S4 for the classification of fire types), leading to distinct emission profiles (see Fig. S5 for the composition of fire types in each region). In the top three emitting regions (SHAF, NHAF, and SHSA), which collectively account for nearly two-thirds (64.4 %) of global CO₂ emissions, burning is driven primarily by savanna fires (SAVA) and deforestation fires (DEFO). The contribution of different fire types varies significantly among these top regions (see Fig. 2a for detailed emission values). In SHAF, the largest source, SAVA are overwhelmingly dominant, accounting for 83 % of its CO₂ emissions. A similar pattern occurs in NHAF, where SAVA contributes 78 % of emissions, although agricultural waste burning (AGRI) also plays a notable role (6 %). In contrast, the emissions in SHSA are more evenly split between SAVA (59 %) and DEFO fires (37 %). In the high-latitude regions of BOAS and Boreal North America (BONA), fires in boreal forests (BORF) are a characteristic emission source, contributing 14 % and 22 % of regional CO₂ emissions, respectively. Notably, our analysis identifies fires classified as SAVA as the largest contributor in both regions (83 % in BOAS and 77 % in BONA). It is critical to note that SAVA in this context refers to the burning of extensive grasslands and shrublands located within the boreal climate zone, as defined by our underlying land cover dataset, rather than tropical savannas. This highlights that non-forest fires are the dominant source of emissions even in these high-latitude zones.

The emission composition of Equatorial Asia (EQAS) is unique. Although its total emissions are relatively low, it is the only region dominated by peatland fires (PEAT), with PEAT emissions contributing as much as 91.34 Tg yr⁻¹ of CO₂ (48.4 % of the regional total). This uniqueness stems from its specific fire regime: vast areas of organic-rich peatlands become highly flammable after being drained and converted to agricultural land (e.g., oil palm plantations). Such fires often manifest as long-duration, hard-to-extinguish subsurface smoldering, leading to extremely high carbon emission intensities and making EQAS a unique and closely watched case in global biomass burning research.

The spatial heterogeneity of this uncertainty is illustrated in Fig. 2b and c, which map the highest and lowest emission estimates across the ensemble. Globally, the uncertainty is substantial, with the maximum estimate of annual CO₂ emissions being 2.2 times higher than the minimum estimate across the MBEI sub-inventories.

Importantly, high biomass burning emission uncertainty is not found in traditional biomass burning hotspots. Instead, some of the highest uncertainties are found in regions with lower overall emissions. Specifically, Australia and New Zealand (AUST) and the Middle East (MIDE) exhibit the greatest uncertainty, with maximum-to-minimum (max/min) emission ratios reaching 7.18 and 6.40, respectively. In AUST, this extreme uncertainty is linked to its fire regime dominated by highly intermittent and catastrophic megafires (e.g., the 2019–2020 events), which pose significant challenges to consistent estimation across different algorithms. In MIDE, which contributes only 0.52 % to the global total, the high uncertainty stems from small, scattered AGRI and SAVA. These weak fire signals are near the lower limit of satellite detection capabilities, a fact confirmed by the large discrepancy observed when comparing estimates derived from “all confidence” versus “high and medium confidence” active fire data. In contrast, the major tropical burning regions show much lower relative uncertainty, despite their massive contribution to global emissions. The African (SHAF, NHAF) and South American (SHSA) hotspots have max/min ratios consistently below 2.0. This greater consensus among methods is attributable to the nature of their fires: large-scale, intense, and seasonally predictable SAVA that are robustly captured by various estimation approaches. Meanwhile, temperate and high-latitude regions such as Central Asia (CEAS), BONA, and Europe (EURO) show intermediate levels of uncertainty, with max/min ratios between 3.5 and 4.0.

In summary, this analysis reveals a critical divergence between the spatial patterns of emission magnitudes and their estimation uncertainties. While emission hotspots are concentrated in tropical regions dominated by regular SAVA and DEFO, the highest uncertainties occur in areas characterized by either highly intermittent megafires (e.g., AUST) or weak, scattered burning (e.g., MIDE), posing distinct challenges to current estimation methods.

The MBEI 2003–2023 CO₂ emission inventory reveals a distinct bimodal seasonal cycle (Fig. 3a). Global emissions reach a minimum in February and then climb to a primary peak in the Northern Hemisphere's late summer (August–September). This global pattern results from the combined effect of staggered fire seasons in key regions. Four regions in particular (SHAF, NHAF, SHSA, and BOAS) drive this cycle, collectively accounting for over 71 % of total annual emissions (Fig. 3b). For a detailed view of the emission sources, Fig. S7 shows the monthly composition of CO₂ emissions by the six fire types for each of the 14 global regions during 2003–2023.

The annual cycle begins its ascent after the global minimum in February, initially driven by fire activity in the Northern Hemisphere. Persistent dry-season burning in NHAF transitions into an intensifying fire season across Eurasia. By April, the focus of burning activity clearly shifts northward, with emissions surging in regions like BOAS, while the major Southern Hemisphere burning regions (SHAF and SHSA) remain in a period of low activity (Fig. 3c).

From May onwards, global emissions accelerate rapidly, driven by the increasing overlap of fire seasons in both hemispheres. While boreal fires in regions like BOAS reach their annual peak in July, the dominant driver of this global surge is the explosive onset of the fire season in SHAF. Concurrently, burning intensifies in SHSA, and this synergistic effect pushes global emissions towards their annual maximum (Fig. 3d).

The global emission peak in August and September is dominated by the Southern Hemisphere, as fire activity wanes in the major Northern Hemisphere regions. During this period, burning in SHSA reaches its annual zenith, fueled by a combination of DEFO and SAVA. Although past its own peak, SHAF remains the single largest regional contributor to global emissions (Fig. 3e).

Beginning in October, the onset of the rainy season in the Southern Hemisphere rapidly suppresses fire activity there, causing a sharp decline in global emissions. This marks a decisive shift in the global burning pattern. The focus of activity returns entirely to NHAF, which enters its primary fire season that lasts through the subsequent winter (Fig. 3f). This distinct hemispheric seesaw effect completes the annual cycle. Figure S8 presents the spatial distribution patterns of monthly CO₂ emissions from global biomass burning during the period 2003–2023.

Over the 2003–2023 study period, global biomass burning CO₂ emissions are characterized not by a significant long-term trend but by pronounced interannual variability. Specifically, the time series of global annual CO₂ emissions, derived from the MBEI, which integrates eight sub-inventories, shows no statistically significant long-term trend (p > 0.05; Fig. 4a). This pattern of high interannual variability, coupled with a lack of a significant long-term trend, is also observed for other major emitted species (Fig. S9). This strong interannual variability is a well-documented feature of global fire activity, primarily linked to climate anomalies such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) (Chen et al., 2017; Mariani et al., 2016; Li et al., 2023). Our time-series analysis confirms this link: emission peaks (e.g., 2010, 2015, 2019) consistently coincide with major El Niño events that trigger widespread drought, while emission troughs (e.g., 2009, 2022) align with wetter La Niña conditions. The sharp contrast between the low emissions during the 2022 La Niña and the subsequent spike during the 2023 El Niño starkly illustrates the powerful influence of the ENSO cycle on global fire activity.

Alongside these climate-driven variations, the MBEI is characterized by a broad uncertainty range, stemming from differences in algorithm structures and input data. The spread between MBEI estimates (the Max–Min band in Fig. 4a, c, e) is considerable, with the difference between the highest and lowest annual totals exceeding 2600 Tg in some years (e.g., 2004, 2022). This divergence arises from methodological differences, particularly between top-down (FRP-based) and bottom-up (burned area-based) approaches in areas like fire detection and combustion parameterization. Critically, however, despite the large spread in absolute emission values, the MBEI sub-inventories show strong agreement on the relative interannual patterns, consistently identifying the same peak and trough years.

This apparent global stability masks significant and opposing regional trends, producing a highly heterogeneous spatial pattern of change (Fig. 4b). Over the full 21-year period, statistically significant trends were concentrated in Asia. BOAS exhibited a strong and significant increasing trend in emission flux at a rate of 15.71 g m⁻² yr⁻¹ (p<0.01). In contrast, CEAS and SEAS showed significant decreasing trends of -1.72 g m⁻² yr⁻¹ (p<0.01) and -2.08 g m⁻² yr⁻¹ (p<0.05), respectively (Table S6). Figure 4b suggests decreases in equatorial Africa and central-southern South America, and increases in BONA, these trends were not statistically significant when aggregated over the entire 14 GFED regions for the 2003–2023 period. This highlights an offsetting pattern, where declining emissions in some regions are partially balanced by increases elsewhere, contributing to the lack of a significant global trend.

A decadal comparison between 2003–2013 and 2013–2023 reveals substantial evolution in these spatial patterns, indicating a major shift in the global distribution of biomass burning emissions (Fig. 4d, f).

During the first decade (2003–2013), a slight but statistically non-significant global decrease (p > 0.05; Fig. 4c) masked a profound spatial redistribution of fire activity. The dominant feature was a significant increase in fire emissions in SHAF, which saw an upward trend of 4.41 g m⁻² yr⁻¹ (p< 0.05). By contrast, South America experienced significant decreases, particularly in NHSA where emissions declined at a rate of -4.97 g m⁻² yr⁻¹ (p< 0.05). Simultaneously, a strong decreasing trend was observed in CEAS, with a rate of -2.96 g m⁻² yr⁻¹ (p< 0.05). Boreal regions and Southeast Asia showed no statistically significant regional trends during this period (Fig. 4d and Table S7).

In the subsequent decade (2013–2023), this pattern shifted markedly. Although the global emission trajectory did not exhibit a statistically significant linear trend (p > 0.05), it transitioned from a slight decline to an overall increase (Fig. 4e), signaling a clear decadal change in biomass burning dynamics. This shift is more appropriately characterized as a structural transformation rather than a linear progression, driven by a marked increase in both the frequency and intensity of extreme emission years (e.g., 2015, 2019, 2023). The 2015–2016 ENSO cycle exemplifies this mechanism, as the super El Niño event in 2015 induced catastrophic PEAT in Indonesia (EQAS) and elevated global emissions to a record peak, which was subsequently followed by a pronounced decline in 2016 with the onset of a strong La Niña (Whitburn et al., 2016; Yin et al., 2020a). The 2023 fire season was even more pronounced, as an unprecedented wildfire season in boreal Canada (BONA) coincided with a developing El Niño, jointly driving global annual emissions to the highest level in our 21-year record. Detailed regional statistics, including the annual mean CO₂ emission fluxes and their corresponding Theil-Sen slope trends across the 14 study regions for the 2013–2023 period, are summarized in Table S8 (Jain et al., 2024; Luo et al., 2025).

Spatially, this decadal shift is characterized by a reversal of trends in Africa and South America (Fig. 4f). Africa, which previously showed increasing trends in the south, now exhibited a pronounced and significant decrease in NHAF, with emissions declining at -5.14 g m⁻² yr⁻¹ (p< 0.05). In a direct reversal of the previous decade, SHSA showed a strong and significant increase of 8.01 g m⁻² yr⁻¹ (p<0.01). Notably, despite the visually striking increases in BONA and northern Eurasia driven by the extreme fire years mentioned previously, the linear trends for these aggregated regions over the 2013–2023 period were not statistically significant, suggesting that the changes were dominated by episodic events rather than a consistent year-over-year increase.

In summary, beneath the overall stable trend of global biomass burning emissions over the past 21 years, there lies a key decadal shift, from a declining phase dominated by weakening fire activity in the tropics (2003–2013) to an increasing phase driven by intensifying fire activity in high-latitude regions and parts of the Southern Hemisphere (2013–2023).

A comparison of biomass burning CO₂ emissions reveals broad spatial agreement across all inventories (including the MBEI from this study, FINN 2.5, GFAS 1.2, GFED 5.0, and QFED 3.1) (Fig. 5). Furthermore, the emission magnitudes from these inventories are largely consistent, with no significant discrepancies. In addition, comparative analyses are performed for three emission species, namely SO₂, PM_2.5 and BC and the results are presented in Figs. S10–S15. These species represent different components and combustion phases of biomass burning. SO₂ reflects the combustion of naturally occurring sulfur-containing organic matter and inorganic sulfides in biomass, PM_2.5 represents the overall intensity of total particulate matter emissions, and BC indicates incomplete combustion during the high-temperature flaming phase. Similar to CO₂, the spatial patterns for these species are largely consistent across inventories. While the products capture similar interannual variability, their estimates of emission magnitudes reveal substantial inter-inventory uncertainty (results show in Figs. S10–S15). All products successfully identify the primary global fire hotspots, including those in Africa (SHAF, NHAF), South America (SHSA), Southeast Asia (SEAS), and the northern boreal forests (BONA, BOAS).

However, significant discrepancies exist in both emission magnitude and spatial detail among various inventories (Fig. 6). The uncertainty range (Max–Min band) of the MBEI generally encompasses the estimates from all reference products across most regions, suggesting that it effectively captures the structural uncertainty among inventories. Moreover, the mean estimate of the MBEI typically resides near the center of the various inventories. With respect to magnitude and trend, our inventory exhibits the closest alignment with GFAS. GFED consistently provides the highest global estimates, while FINN ranks second and in some regions even exceeds GFED, whereas QFED remains generally lower. Despite these differences in magnitude, all inventories demonstrate strong consistency in interannual variability, successfully capturing major global fire years (e.g., 2010, 2015, 2019).

A regional analysis highlights significant divergences among emission inventories, particularly in the high-emission tropics where the MBEI's uncertainty band is often substantial. In the African savannas (NHAF, SHAF), the MBEI mean estimate is consistently lower than GFED 5.0, often residing in the lower half of the inter-inventory range (Fig. 6i, j). For instance, in SHAF, GFED 5.0 estimates are frequently approximately 10 Tg yr⁻¹ higher than the MBEI mean, while our estimate aligns closely with GFAS 1.2 and QFED 3.0. Conversely, in regions with significant DEFO and AGRI fires like SHSA and SEAS, FINN 2.5 estimates consistently occupy the upper portion of the inter-inventory range. In these areas, the MBEI mean is again more conservative, and our Max–Min band effectively captures the cluster of lower estimates from GFED, GFAS, and QFED (Fig. 6f, m).

In contrast, inter-inventory agreement is generally higher in low- to moderate-emission regions at mid- to high latitudes, where the MBEI mean closely tracks the multi-inventory average (e.g., Temperate North American (TENA) and EURO; Fig. 6c, g). However, this consistency breaks down in boreal forests during years with episodic, large-scale fires. In these instances, the value of the Max–Min band becomes particularly evident. During the extreme BONA fire year of 2004, estimates spanned a wide range from FINN 2.5 (2.2 Tg) to GFED 5.0 (6.7 Tg). Critically, our own Max–Min band for that year expanded dramatically (from 1.0 to 8.0 Tg), explicitly quantifying the immense challenge and uncertainty in capturing such events. A similar expansion of our uncertainty band is observed in BOAS during its severe 2021 fire season, where our maximum estimate reached 26.8 Tg, encompassing the high values from other inventories.

Regions dominated by specific fuel types, such as the peatlands of EQAS, reveal fundamental methodological differences that are well-framed by our uncertainty analysis. While all inventories captured the 2015 El Niño-driven fire peak, the estimated magnitude varied by more than five-fold, from QFED 3.0 (2.7 Tg) to FINN 2.5 (14.6 Tg) (Fig. 6n). The MBEI mean estimate (6.0 Tg) and its associated uncertainty band (3.2–8.6 Tg) are positioned centrally among these estimates, with its upper bound approaching the GFED 5.0 value (9.3 Tg) while excluding the extreme high and low outliers. This indicates that, under substantial uncertainty in quantifying PEAT emissions, the MBEI delineates a comprehensive Max–Min band and provides a stable central mean estimate within it.

In summary, our comparison demonstrates that while existing inventories agree on broad spatiotemporal patterns, significant quantitative disagreements persist, particularly in tropical regions and during extreme fire events. Against this backdrop, the MBEI provides a new, synthesized central estimate and a robust uncertainty range (Max–Min band). Its central estimate is consistent with the ensemble median, and its uncertainty bounds effectively encompass the spread across different inventories. This central estimate and a quantified uncertainty range not only offers a reliable measure of biomass burning emissions but also serves as a diagnostic tool, highlighting the specific regions (e.g., African savannas, Southeast Asian peatlands) and conditions (e.g., extreme boreal fires) that drive the largest inter-inventory discrepancies, thereby providing a clear basis for future inventory refinement.

This study introduces the MBEI, a systematic emission estimation framework built upon a framework of eight sub-inventories, integrating both bottom-up and top-down approaches with various combinations of key input data. The emission range of the MBEI provides a direct measure of structural uncertainty, allowing modelers to assess the sensitivity of their simulations to inventory choice (high-end vs. low-end estimates). This addresses a long-standing challenge in climate and atmospheric chemistry modeling, where discrepancies among emission inventories are a recognized major source of the simulation uncertainty (Pan et al., 2020; Su et al., 2023). The MBEI framework systematically quantifies this uncertainty, revealing two key findings. First, the uncertainty is substantial in magnitude, with the maximum global annual CO₂ estimate across the sub-inventories being 2.2 times the minimum. Second, and perhaps more importantly, the uncertainty exhibits significant spatial heterogeneity, with the highest relative uncertainty not coinciding with traditional emission hotspots, but instead found in regions with lower emissions, such as AUST and MIDE.

This divergence is strongly linked to how regional land cover and fire regime characteristics amplify the sensitivity of different estimation methodologies. For instance, in AUST, the fire regime is dominated by event-driven, extremely high-intensity megafires. These events pose significant challenges for both FRP-based algorithms, which can be prone to saturation, and burned area-based methods, which struggle to accurately map such intense and rapidly spreading fires. Conversely, in the MIDE, the high uncertainty arises from weak, small-scale, and scattered AGRI or SAVA. These fires are often near the detection limits of satellite sensors, causing emission estimates to be highly sensitive to the chosen active fire detection confidence thresholds. In stark contrast, African savannas, despite their high emission fluxes, show lower relative uncertainty. Their widespread and seasonally predictable fires are robustly captured by both top-down and bottom-up approaches, leading to greater convergence among the different methods. This finding implies that future efforts to refine emission inventories should extend beyond traditional hotspots to better understand and parameterize the distinct combustion processes in these atypical fire regimes.

The MBEI's 21-year analysis also uncovers a critical shift in the long-term dynamics of global emissions. Despite a stable trend overall, we identify a clear decadal transition: from a slight decline dominated by weakening tropical fires (2003–2013) to a rising phase driven by intensifying boreal fires and more frequent extreme events (2013–2023). This dynamic, characterized by a decline in tropical fire activity and an increase in boreal fire activity, synthesizes seemingly disparate observations, such as the global decrease in burned area (Andela et al., 2017) and the lengthening of fire seasons in high-latitude regions (Jones et al., 2022), into a coherent narrative at the emission level. Particularly in the second decade, climate-driven extreme events, such as the 2015 Indonesian peat fires, the 2019–2020 Australian megafires, and the 2023 Canadian wildfires, significantly reshaped the global emission record. This underscores the growing influence of climate change on global biomass burning emissions, a shift with profound implications for the global carbon cycle and its associated climate feedbacks.

The MBEI framework aims to quantify the structural uncertainty in global biomass burning emissions by ensembling multiple algorithmic approaches. However, the accuracy of any emission inventory is inherently constrained by the spatiotemporal resolution and physical sensitivity of its input data. The uncertainty ranges revealed in this study, which span various regions and biomes, largely reflect the physical limitations of current Earth observation systems in capturing extreme fire behaviors and complex surface processes, alongside the methodological differences discussed.

A key decision in this study was to use MODIS active fire products (MCD14DL) exclusively for the 2003–2023 period. Although the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS), available since 2012, offers superior spatial resolution (375 m) compared to MODIS (1 km), applying it would have limited the consistent time series to the post-2012 era. Merging MODIS (2003–2011) and VIIRS (2012–2023) records introduces a risk of inconsistency; the higher detection sensitivity of VIIRS could result in an artificial increase in fire counts, which might be misinterpreted as a real upward trend in global fire activity. To maintain the homogeneity of the 21-year dataset for trend analysis, we prioritized sensor consistency. We acknowledge that this choice likely leads to an underestimation of emissions from small-scale agricultural fires, particularly in regions like the Middle East or India, where fires are often smaller than the MODIS detection threshold (Hantson et al., 2013; Justice et al., 2002; Vadrevu and Lasko, 2018).

In addition to sensor specifications, most current inventories relying on optical remote sensing face inherent physical limits driven by environmental heterogeneity. Complex surface conditions can constrain the effectiveness of estimation methods. For instance, in the peatlands of Equatorial Asia (e.g., Indonesia), fires often occur as subsurface low-temperature smoldering. The thermal radiation from these fires is frequently too weak to trigger standard satellite detection algorithms (Rein and Huang, 2021; Sofan et al., 2019). Similarly, in dense tropical rainforests, the canopy layer can occlude or absorb thermal radiation emitted by understory fires (East et al., 2023). These scenarios contribute to omission errors in top-down, FRP-based approaches (Morton et al., 2013; Tyukavina et al., 2022). Conversely, while bottom-up methods based on burned area can capture the spatial traces of these fires, they face challenges in accurately determining the depth of burn in organic soils (Ballhorn et al., 2009; Wiggins et al., 2018). Therefore, despite the integration of multiple algorithms in MBEI, these physical constraints suggest a potential underestimation in our emission estimates for these specific biomes.

Looking forward, the flexible architecture of MBEI is designed to incorporate emerging datasets to address these limitations. As the observational record of VIIRS extends, future versions of MBEI will integrate these data to improve the detection of small-scale fires once a sufficiently long and consistent record is established. Furthermore, data from new-generation geostationary satellites (e.g., FY-4, Himawari-8/9, GOES-R) offer a significant improvement in temporal resolution. Minute-level observations from these platforms will enable the direct integration of the Fire Radiative Power diurnal cycle, reducing the reliance on Gaussian extrapolation from sparse polar-orbiter snapshots and enhancing the physical realism of Fire Radiative Energy estimation.

Advancements in next-generation satellites will also enhance the MBEI's capacity for fuel load estimation. In this study, due to the lack of high-resolution annual AGB observations, we adjusted static AGB maps using interannual variations in NPP. However, AGB is a cumulative stock variable, whereas NPP is an annual flux variable. Their relationship is complex and influenced by factors such as lag effects, tree mortality, and decomposition, meaning a high NPP year does not always result in an immediate biomass increase (Keeling and Phillips, 2007; Teets et al., 2022). Future versions of MBEI aim to improve this by integrating dynamic AGB datasets from active remote sensing missions. Specifically, spaceborne LiDAR (e.g., NASA GEDI) and P-band SAR (e.g., ESA BIOMASS mission) are expected to provide global measurements of forest vertical structure. This will allow MBEI to incorporate dynamic fuel loads, thereby reducing a major source of uncertainty in the bottom-up approach based on burned area (Cao et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2019; Rodríguez-Fernández et al., 2018).

Finally, current emission estimates rely on static EFs, which may not fully capture the variability of combustion efficiency within biomes or during a fire's lifecycle (van Leeuwen et al., 2013; Yin, 2022). Future improvements are expected to come from developing comprehensive EF databases through advanced molecular-level aerosol speciation (Jen et al., 2019; Koss et al., 2018). Complementing this, dynamic high-resolution EF datasets could be generated using synchronous satellite trace gas retrievals. For example, the ratio of carbon monoxide to nitrogen dioxide (ΔNO2/ΔCO) columns derived from the TROPOMI sensor can serve as a near-real-time proxy for combustion efficiency (flaming vs. smoldering) (van der Velde et al., 2021). By assimilating such dynamic proxies, MBEI aims to evolve toward a more dynamic monitoring system.

In conclusion, while the current version of MBEI quantifies uncertainty by integrating established methods, its modular design serves as a platform for incorporating new data inputs as they become available. This ensures a feasible pathway for iterative refinement, supporting more comprehensive assessments of global biomass burning emissions.