First ice thickness measurements in Tierra del Fuego at Glacier Schiaparelli, Chile

Cordillera Darwin in Tierra del Fuego (Chile) remains one of the least studied glaciated regions in the world. However, this region being one of very few terrestrial sites at this latitude in the Southern Hemisphere has the potential to provide key information on the effect of climate variability and climate change on the cryosphere at sub-polar mid-latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere. Glacier Schiaparelli is located at the northern side of the Cordillera Darwin draining the north side of Monte Sarmiento (2187 m asl). Despite being one of the largest glaciers in the Cordillera Darwin no previous in 5 situ observation of its ice thickness had been made neither at this glacier nor at any other location in the Cordillera Darwin. Ice thickness is one of the fundamental parameters to understand glaciers dynamics, constrain ice dynamical modelling and predict glacier evolution. In April 2016 we performed the first successful ice thickness measurements using terrestrial groundpenetrating radar in the ablation area of Glacier Schiaparelli (Gacitúa et al., 2020), https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.919331. The measurements were made along a transect line perpendicular to the ice flow. Results show a valley shaped bedrock with 10 a maximum ice thickness of 324 m within a distinct glacier trough. The bedrock is located below current sea level for 51% of the transect measurements with a minimum of -158 m which illustrates that the local topography is subject to considerable glacier-related over-deepening.


Introduction
In recent decades, efforts have been made to improve the knowledge of the effects of climate variablity on glaciers and associ-15 ated ecosystems in the Southern Hemisphere's sub-polar region. However, an important part of this region, such as Cordillera Darwin in Tierra del Fuego, southernmost South America, remains poorly explored with critical gaps of information. Here we describe geophysical data from the first ice thickness observations in Cordillera Darwin. The study is part of an international multidiciplinary collaboration to decipher the impact of climate variability and climate change on the cryosphere in Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego (Meier et al., 2019(Meier et al., , 2018Malz et al., 2018;Weidemann et al., 2018b). The climate of this region is Glacier retreat in the region has been occuring since the Little Ice Age (Davies and Glasser, 2012;Strelin et al., 2008).
The spatial variability of glacier retreat within Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego responds to different ice dynamic processes given geographical and topographical conditions (Holmlund and Fuenzalida, 1995;Porter and Santana, 2003). Yet most of the 5 glaciers in the region are experiencing major mass loss in comparison with worldwide average rates (Pellicciotti et al., 2014).
It has been concluded that the main cause of rapid retreat is the increase in mean annual temperatures (Rosenblüth et al., 1997;Villalba et al., 2003), although ice dynamics and topographic controls are also important (Porter and Santana, 2003).
Glacier Schiaparelli (24.78 km 2 ) (Bown et al., 2014) is the northernmost glacier of the Sarmiento Massif in the Western Tierra del Fuego (54°23'S 70°52'W) ( Figure 1). It flows towards NW, being exposed to atmospheric circulation from the 10 Pacific Ocean being thus an indicator of glacial response to oceanic climatic variability related to both warming trends and variability in atmospheric circulation patterns (Weidemann et al., 2018a).
Since direct observations of glaciers, such as ice thickness, are crucial to understand ice dynamics, in April 2016 we carried out field work on Glacier Schiaparelli to obtain in-situ data. Among other measurements, we collected the first set of ice thickness data of Glacier Schiaparelli (Gacitúa et al., 2020). This paper describes the methodology and results obtained using

Methodology
The ground-penetrating radar used (http://www.unmannedindustrial.com/sites/default/files/GPR.pdf) consists of an impulse 20 system (transmitter/receiver), control unit (hand-held) and resistively loaded dipole antennas (8 m length each). The antennas length provides an approximate central frequency of 10 MHz, following the design by Wu and King (1965). The transmitter emits signals with voltage set to 1.4 kV in accordance with relatively shallow ice. The receiver amplifies and stacks the radar signal (traces), and communicates with the hand-held unit which controls the collection and stores the data. The system operates at 1 kHz PRF (pulse repetition frequency) and the trigger signal is conveniently synchronised by GPS devices incorporated 25 at both transmitter and receiver providing position for each stored scan. The system can stack a maximum 4096 traces and captures maximum 4096 samples per scan. Final data is delivered as consecutive files of 1000 traces each. The receiver uses an analog-to-digital converter that operates at 80 MSPS (mega samples per second) and has a resolution of 32 bits. Both transmitter and receiver function with an external battery of 12 V and 7 Ah, allowing an autonomy of one day of measurements in ideal conditions.

30
The field operation requires three persons: the first holds one extreme of the receiver antenna, the second carries the receiver equipment and the third person carries the transmitter equipment. The collinear antennas are connected by the extremes with a rope of half dipole length, resulting in a 40 m total system length (see inset photo in Fig. 2). A nearly complete profile across the glacier of approximately 3.1 km (two-way transect) was performed on the lower part of Glacier Schiaparelli. Crevasses on the glacier prevented reaching the northern margin of the glacier. We adjusted the parameters, such as vertical range and resolution, during the data collection and obtained 7 files (varied size content). We assume a constant wave speed propagation of 0.168 m/ns in temperate ice (Johari and Charette, 1975). Data were processed using a 5 commercial software (ReflexW, Sandmeier (2011)). The processing steps include a) geometric corrections of zero depth considering distance of 24m between transmitter and receiver, b) re-sampling to correct different vertical resolution (number of samples per trace) of files, c) frequency-wave number (F-K) migration (Stolt, 1978) to reduce diffraction noise and correct the position of the bedrock reflectors and d) subtracting average values to reduce horizontal noise. Figure 3 shows the resulting compiled radar data with the manual picking of the bedrock interpretation. Ice depth is subject to at least 10% of error due 10 to manual picking, geometrical variations, and the assumption of homogeneous ice. The radar data shows a steep U-shaped valley with a maximum ice thickness of 324 m within a distinct glacier trough. The data show that 51% of the bedrock is below current sea level ( Figure 4) reaching a minimum of -158 m within a distinct morphological over-deepening, presumably as a result of glacier erosion. An interpolation of the bedrock elevation was made using the glacier outline for the ablation area covered (Fig. 2). Despite the fact that the resulting interpolation suffers from the lack of bedrock data at the North and 15 Northwest edges, it provides a fair representation of the valley shape. At the time of the measurements there were visible signs