In order to fill the gaps in the current data, 889 soil profiles and 12 723 topsoil samples from all over Chile (Table 2) were gathered, curated and harmonized. Of this information, 89 % had previously been unpublished or unavailable to the national and global scientific community. The resultant soil information was from all of the administrative regions and 16 out of 17 ecological zones of Chile (Fig. 1; Table 3).

Data compiled from the literature are referenced in Table 1. Sources include legacy soil surveys, environmental assessment reports, research papers, private reports, theses and unpublished data provided by researchers. The minimum requirements for inclusion in the database were geographic-coordinate information, records of soil horizon depth and soil organic carbon content (or organic matter content). Other soil variables, such as bulk density, texture and/or coarse fragments, sampling depth, sampling year, and measurement methods, were included where available. Approximately 20 % of horizon samples included information on bulk density (BLD) measured using the clod or the core (cylinder) method, and only 382 horizons (<3 %) included information about coarse fragments (CRF).

The resulting database (summarized in Table 1) includes datasets of variable size, source and composition. Unpublished data sources are referenced in the database to the co-author and group who provided the data. Examples of unpublished data sources are shown in Table 1 and include those of the Oficina de Estudios y Políticas Agrarias (ODEPA) with 782 points provided by José Ramirez, Methanobase (Table 1), corresponding to surface samples (0–25 cm) from the Magallanes Region collected in 2016 and provided by Lea Cabrol and Maialen Barret (Table 3). A further 51 data points from the Environmental Impact Assessment System (SEIA) were included from mostly underrepresented areas, such as the Andes and the Atacama Desert.

The largest contributor to CHLSOC (9935 data points) was the SOC dataset of the Agricultural and Livestock Service (SAG by its Spanish abbreviation). The data were comprised of SOC obtained from the first 20 cm of soil by auger or excavation methods sampled by beneficiaries (farmers) of the SAG subsidy program.

Another important data contributor was the legacy soil survey data compiled by the Centro de Información de Recursos Naturales (CIREN), reported as regional soil surveys that were carried out from the 1960s up to 2007. In total, CIREN compiled 37 soil surveys, totaling 540 data points over 177 500 km2 (equal to about 24.5 % of the total Chilean territory), many of which are already compilations of former studies originally not referenced by CIREN (CIREN, 1996a, b, 1997a, b, 1999, 2002, 2003, 2005a, b, 2007).

The assembled data were sampled over several decades and compiled by different authors and institutions. We would like to mention the following warnings to the data users: first, for some data points it was not possible to find or verify the original data source. Second, a potential source of uncertainty may be the analytical method employed for analysis; for most samples (97 %), SOC content was analyzed using the wet-oxidation method, and a small number were analyzed by total combustion (CN elemental analyzer). Discrepancies in SOC results between combustion methods have identified wet combustion as a less reliable assessment method for SOC, as it tends to underestimate organic carbon at higher SOC contents (Kumar et al., 2019) and potentially overestimates it in highly reduced soils (Chatterjee et al., 2009). This issue has not been addressed in Chile to date. The recommended methods for SOC determination are currently wet oxidation and loss on ignition; however, dry combustion is a more accurate alternative (Sadzawka et al., 2006). Future data collection initiatives should stress consistent analytical procedures as a revision of local standards is urgently required. Finally, a possible source of bias in data from SAG is the fact that samples were taken by farmers following SAG guidelines where a composite sampling is taken for each parcel.

To date, CHLSOC is the most complete data compilation for mainland Chile, comprising 13 612 points, a great improvement in comparison with former databases used in Chile for SOC assessments. For example, national SOC mapping studies (Padarian et al., 2017; Reyes Rojas et al., 2018) were based almost exclusively on CIREN data (540 points). CHLSOC can be used to show the influence of soil, vegetation and climatic conditions on SOC concentrations. Table 3 shows the number of data compiled in this work, by vegetation formation. It is important to note that the scheme of Luebert and Pliscoff (2006) corresponds to the potential vegetation belts that originally occupied the territory and does not necessarily reflect current land use. We refer to vegetation formations as “ecosystems” as this is a more common term and to avoid further specific disciplinary discussion, which is outside the scope of this work. In order to represent each ecosystem (by vegetation formation) in CHLSOC, the database is based on the number of data points divided by the total coverage of the ecosystem in Chile.

More than two thirds (85.73 %) of the data are sampled from a concentrated area (25 % of the total country area) found in the following four ecosystems: deciduous forest, broad-leaved forest, sclerophyllous forest and thorny forest. The first two ecosystems are located in the northern section of the temperate macrobioclimatic zone and the second two in the southern section of the Mediterranean macrobioclimatic zone (Moreira-Muñoz, 2011). These ecosystems are characterized by a combination of benign climate, high-quality soils and water availability (for irrigation), resulting in a long history of agricultural activity and human settlement (Armesto et al., 2010). For this reason, these areas have experienced the highest land use conversion to agriculture, forestry and urban use in the country (Echeverría et al., 2006; Schulz et al., 2010; Arroyo et al., 2008). Deciduous forests (14.7 % of the country) are the most represented, with 52.14 % of the data points collected in CHLSOC located between latitudes 35 and 41∘ S (Fig. 1).

The second-largest pool of data (8.6 % of the total data compiled in this work) is for evergreen forest, steppe and grassland (Table 3), which comprise 10.3 % of the country's area. These ecosystems are located between 41 and 53∘ S in the temperate macrobioclimate (Moreira-Muñoz, 2011), a thermally homogeneous territory with a considerable precipitation gradient that can reach several meters of mean annual precipitation on its western section, along the Pacific coast (Garreaud et al., 2009). These areas contain vast sections of pristine forest, with only 8 % of the land being converted to other land use (Pliscoff and Fuentes-Castillo, 2011). Most of the data collected here correspond to the eastern section of the administrative region of Aysén in Patagonia. The relatively high representation of these ecosystems in the database can be attributed to (i) the intense agricultural use of the northern section of the evergreen forest and (ii) an unprecedented effort in soil sampling in the Aysén Region (43.5–49∘ S) by SAG and the Agricultural Research Institute (INIA by its Spanish acronym; Table 1; Hepp and Stolpe, 2014).

Arguably the most important ecosystem in terms of SOC stocks for Chile is that of the moorlands, which comprise a large area located on the Pacific coast of Patagonia where the landscape is fragmented into fjords and small islands (between 44 and 55∘ S). The moorlands cover a significant section (9.1 %) of the country's area and are probably the largest soil carbon reservoir in Chile, with an almost continuous carpet of thick peat bog to a depth of 5 m in some places (Loisel and Yu, 2013; Minasny et al., 2019). Despite the importance of moorland soils, most of our knowledge of this ecosystem comes from the northern and eastern borders, whereas there is limited information about peat soils in remote areas of the western fjords (20 observations in this database).

The Atacama Desert section of Chile (Table 3; desert, low desert scrub and desertic scrub) comprises 2.18 % of the CHLSOC database but corresponds to 6 % of the country's area. However, the number of data points compiled for this region (298) constitutes a great improvement compared with previous national work on SOC for the Atacama Desert, which only included 3 points (Padarian et al., 2017).

The scarce SOC information for this region may be due to the extreme aridity of the region, low biological activity and low SOC accumulation (McKay et al., 2003). Vegetation is restricted to a narrow belt along the coast that receives water from fog, deep valleys that cross the desert and the western flank of the Andes (Moreira-Muñoz, 2011).

Regions of high altitude and mountainous areas comprise 102 data points (0.74 % of the database) representing 16.2 % of the country's area. Two characteristic alpine vegetation formations exist in the Chilean Andes between 18 and 38∘ S (Fig. 1) that comprise herbaceous alpine vegetation and alpine dwarf scrub. Most of the data are concentrated on the lower part (alpine dwarf scrub), while virtually no soil data are available for the higher section of the Andes (above 3000 m a.s.l.). The scarcity of soil data for this region means that assessment of the impact of climate change on soil C stocks is uncertain as large quantities of SOC are stored in this ecosystem (Bockheim and Munroe, 2014).

Few data are available for the coniferous forest, deciduous shrubland, thorny shrubland and arborescent shrubland areas of vegetation (Table 3) located in areas of low forestry or agricultural interest, but these areas comprise less than 2.5 % of the country.

In summary, the data we have compiled demonstrate the imbalance between areas of agricultural and forestry interest and areas beyond those land uses. Three areas of high value in terms of ecological, scientific and ecosystem services nationwide (and worldwide) are underrepresented in terms of soil data: the high Andes, the Atacama Desert and western Patagonia. Government efforts to develop soil surveys in these regions should be promoted urgently. In particular, a SOC inventory of western Patagonia is essential to properly assess the national stock of SOC and the potential to include this area in carbon offset programs.

The date of sample collection is provided in more than 90 % of the included data (12 318 data points). The majority of points were sampled in 2006 and between 2010 and 2018 (Fig. 2). The high number of data from the last decade enables users to estimate modern carbon in Chilean soils. Most of the data that report the year in which they were sampled are concentrated in a short timeframe and mainly correspond to the SAG database (2010–2018) and to sampling efforts related to research projects such as ODEPA in 2006 and INIA (mainly 2015–2018).

Data from CIREN (Table 1) did not report a sampling date. However, as they consist of a compilation of known former soil surveys, we can limit the period in which samples were collected and analyzed to the period between 1970 and 2007. The oldest data points correspond to those collected by Holdgate (1961) in the western Patagonian fjords in 1959.