Meteorological, snow survey, streamflow, and groundwater data are presented
from Marmot Creek Research Basin, Alberta, Canada. The basin is a
9.4 km2, alpine–montane forest headwater catchment of the Saskatchewan
River basin that provides vital water supplies to the Prairie Provinces of
Canada. It was heavily instrumented, experimented upon, and operated by
several federal government agencies between 1962 and 1986, during which time
its main and sub-basin streams were gauged, automated meteorological stations
at multiple elevations were installed, groundwater observation wells were dug
and automated, and frequent manual measurements of snow accumulation and
ablation and other weather and water variables were made. Over this period,
mature evergreen forests were harvested in two sub-basins, leaving large
clear cuts in one basin and a “honeycomb” of small forest clearings in
another basin. Whilst meteorological measurements and sub-basin streamflow
discharge weirs in the basin were removed in the late 1980s, the federal
government maintained the outlet streamflow discharge measurements and a
nearby high-elevation meteorological station, and the Alberta provincial
government maintained observation wells and a nearby fire weather station.
Marmot Creek Research Basin was intensively re-instrumented with 12 automated
meteorological stations, four sub-basin hydrometric sites, and seven snow
survey transects starting in 2004 by the University of Saskatchewan Centre
for Hydrology. The observations provide detailed information on meteorology,
precipitation, soil moisture, snowpack, streamflow, and groundwater during
the historical period from 1962 to 1987 and the modern period from 2005 to
the present time. These data are ideal for monitoring climate change,
developing hydrological process understanding, evaluating process algorithms
and hydrological, cryospheric, or atmospheric models, and examining the
response of basin hydrological cycling to changes in climate, extreme
weather, and land cover through hydrological modelling and statistical
analyses. The data presented are publicly available from Federated Research
Data Repository (10.20383/101.09, Fang et al., 2018).
Introduction
The eastern slopes of the Canadian Rocky Mountains form the
headwaters of the Saskatchewan River basin (SRB), whose water supplies are vital to domestic, agricultural,
and industrial users in the Canadian Prairie Provinces. These mountain
headwaters occupy about 12.6 % of total drainage area but generate
87 % of total water yield in the SRB (Redmond, 1964). Recognising the
importance of these headwaters, the Eastern Rocky Mountain Forest
Conservation Act was passed in 1947, which aimed to conserve and protect the
Saskatchewan River headwaters (Neill, 1980; Rothwell et al., 2016). The
Eastern Slopes (Alberta) Watershed Research Program (AWRP) was created in
1960 to investigate relationships between forest, soil, climate, and water
and to examine the impacts of commercial timber harvesting practices on basin
water yield and water quality (Jeffrey, 1965; Kirby and Ogilvy, 1969). This
program was a collaborative effort between several provincial and federal
government agencies to establish experimental watersheds in the headwaters,
one of which was the establishment of what was then called the “Marmot Creek
Experimental Watershed” during 1961–1962 (Rothwell et al., 2016). This
later became the University of Saskatchewan-operated “Marmot Creek Research
Basin” (MCRB) by which it is referred to in this paper.
During the historical period of 1962–1986, a paired-basin experiment devised
by the Canadian Forestry Service (CFS) explored the effects of forest cutting
on snow accumulation and water yield in MCRB. Two types of forest clearing
experiment were conducted in the sub-alpine spruce–fir forest part of the basin
(Fig. 1): six large “commercial” forest cut blocks were harvested in the
Cabin Creek sub-basin during 1971–1972 and a “honeycomb” of numerous small
circular clearings, each 12 to 18 m in diameter, were harvested in the
Twin Creek sub-basin during 1977–1979, with Middle Creek left intact as a
control sub-basin (Rothwell et al., 2016). Snow accumulation increased by
21 % in the large forest cutting blocks (Swanson et al., 1986) and 28 %
in the small forest clearings compared to under adjacent intact forest
canopies (Swanson and Golding, 1982). Overall, there was no statistically
significant change in streamflow that could be associated with the forestry
manipulations (Harder et al., 2015). Several other studies were carried out
in parallel to the forest clearing experiments. Investigations on soil water
storage and soil temperature in relation to snow accumulation and melt,
forest, and slope orientation were conducted at several sites in MCRB and
provided some early understanding of infiltration and runoff in the basin
(Harlan, 1969; Hillman and Golding, 1981). Extensive field campaigns
throughout MCRB produced detailed descriptions of soils (Beke, 1969) and
surficial geology (Stevenson, 1967). Additional studies were undertaken to
assess the basin's meteorology (Munn and Storr, 1967; Storr, 1967, 1973).
Most hydrometeorological observations in MCRB ceased after 1986 due to the
opening of the adjacent Nakiska Ski Resort in the 1986–1987 ski season and
subsequent hosting of 1988 Winter Olympic Games; only streamflow measurements
at the main outlet by Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC), and
groundwater measurements by Alberta Environment and Parks (AEP), were
continued, though a high-elevation weather station was established on
Centennial Ridge by ECCC, and Alberta Agriculture and Forestry maintained a
nearby valley-bottom weather station (Rothwell et al., 2016).
Location and contour map of the Marmot Creek
Research Basin (MCRB), showing hydrometeorological stations, hydrometric
stations, groundwater wells and snow courses, and ecozones of the MCRB:
alpine, treeline, upper forest, forest clearing blocks, forest circular
clearings, and lower forest. Note that the size and areas of circular
clearings in Twin Creek are not to scale.
After the Olympics, research activities in MCRB were minimal until 2004 when
the research basin was reactivated by the University of Saskatchewan with the
help of the University of Calgary and ECCC. Wide-ranging research has been
conducted since then to improve the understanding of the impact of forest
canopy and forest clearings on snow accumulation and snowmelt energetics
(Ellis and Pomeroy, 2007; Essery et al., 2008; Pomeroy et al., 2009; Ellis et
al., 2013; Musselman and Pomeroy, 2017), slope and aspect controls on snow
accumulation and melt (DeBeer and Pomeroy, 2009; Ellis et al., 2011; Marsh et
al., 2012), blowing snow and sublimation in the alpine treeline environment
with respect to local wind and topography (MacDonald et al., 2010), alpine
snowmelt runoff generation (DeBeer and Pomeroy, 2017), hillslope hydrology of
the forest organic layer (Keith et al., 2010), and precipitation phase
partitioning (Harder and Pomeroy, 2013). MCRB has also been the site of
instrument or methodology development, from an early airborne lidar snow
depth measurement (Hopkinson et al., 2012) to acoustic measurements of snow
(Kinar and Pomeroy, 2009) as well as early telescope-based snow surveys
(Kinar and Pomeroy, 2015). Utilising the Cold Regions Hydrological Modelling
platform (CRHM) these advances have been synthesised into a physically based
hydrological model of MCRB (Fang et al., 2013), which was used to assess the
impact of forest disturbances on basin hydrology (Pomeroy et al., 2012),
analyse antecedent conditions on flood generation (Fang and Pomeroy, 2016),
and diagnose rain-on-snow runoff generation for an alpine environment during
the 2013 flood in MCRB (Pomeroy et al., 2016).
This paper includes datasets of meteorological, snow survey, streamflow, and
groundwater observations measured in MCRB. Meteorological datasets include
historical observations by the CFS and ECCC and recent measurements by the
University of Saskatchewan Centre for Hydrology. Continuous records of
streamflow measurements by ECCC and the University of Saskatchewan as well as
groundwater levels monitored by AEP are also included. The snow survey data
presented were conducted in clearings, under forest canopies, and on
hillslopes at various elevations and are useful for model evaluation and snow
process studies. Some of the studies utilising these datasets document the
basin resilience to changes in climate, extreme weather, and land cover
(Harder et al., 2015), a sensitivity analysis of climate warming on snow
processes (Pomeroy et al., 2015), and assessments of variability of climate and its
impact on the hydrological processes (Siemens, 2016).
Site description
Marmot Creek Research Basin (MCRB) (50.95∘ N, 115.15∘ W) is
in the headwaters of the Bow River basin in the Front Ranges of the Canadian Rocky Mountains (Fig. 1) and
its streamflow discharges into the Kananaskis River. The basin area
(9.4 km2) is defined by the Water Survey of Canada stream gauge that
was installed in 1962 (Bruce and Clark, 1965). MCRB is composed of three
upper sub-basins: Cabin Creek (2.35 km2), Middle Creek
(2.94 km2), and Twin Creek (2.79 km2), which converge into the
confluence sub-basin above the main stream gauge (1.32 km2). Upper
Marmot Creek is an upper sub-basin of Middle Creek (1.178 km2), is
primarily alpine, and is also gauged. Based on a resampled 2007 lidar 8 m
digital elevation model (DEM) (Hopkinson et al., 2012), hypsometric curves
were derived for MCRB and its three sub-basins (Fig. 2). Elevation ranges
from 1590 m a.s.l. (above sea level) at the main Marmot Creek gauging
station to 2829 m at the summit of Mount Allan. The 8 m resampled lidar
DEM, sub-basin stream network, and sub-basin boundary GIS data are also
included in the datasets.
Hypsometric curves for the Marmot Creek Research Basin and three
sub-basins showing the relationship between the elevation and percent area
below the indicated elevation.
Most of MCRB is covered by needleleaf vegetation, which is dominated by
Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) and subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) in upper-mid elevations of the basin (1710 to 2277 m). The lower-elevation (1590 to 2015 m) forests are mainly Engelmann spruce and lodgepole
pine (Pinus contorta var. Latifolia) with trembling aspen
(Populus tremuloides) present near the basin outlet (Kirby and
Ogilvy, 1969). Alpine larch (Larix lyallii) and short shrubs are
present around the treeline at approximately 2016 to 2379 m. Exposed rock
surfaces, grasses, and talus are present in the highest alpine part of the basin
(1956 to 2829 m). Physiographic descriptions of these ecozones are shown in
Table 1 and they are mapped in Fig. 1. These ecozones were determined from
the forest cover map by the Alberta Forest Service (1963) with recent updates
from site visits. Forest management experiments conducted in the 1970s and
1980s left six large clear-cut blocks (1838 to 2062 m) in the Cabin Creek
sub-basin and numerous small circular forest clearings (1762 to 2209 m) in
the Twin Creek sub-basin (Golding and Swanson, 1986). These old forest
clear-cut blocks and clearings have regrown as sparse juvenile forest to
varying degrees. The basin surface land cover GIS data are included in the
datasets.
Area and mean elevation, aspect, and slope for ecozones at the
Marmot Creek Research Basin. Note that the aspect is in degrees clockwise from
north.
The surficial soils are primarily poorly developed mountain soils consisting
of glaciofluvial, surficial till, and postglacial colluvium deposits (Beke,
1969). Relatively impermeable bedrock is found at the higher elevations,
whilst the rest of the basin is covered by a deep layer of coarse and permeable
soil allowing for rapid rainfall infiltration to subsurface layers overlying
relatively impermeable shale (Jeffrey, 1965).
Continental air masses control the weather in the region, which has long and
cold winters and cool and wet springs with a late spring–early summer
precipitation maximum. Westerly warm and dry Chinook (foehn) winds lead to
brief periods when the air temperature exceeds 0 ∘C during the
winter months – these events can result in snowpack ablation at lower
elevations. Annual precipitation ranges from 600 mm at lower elevations to
more than 1100 mm at the higher elevations, of which approximately 70 %
to 75 % occurs as snowfall with the percentage increasing with elevation
(Storr, 1967). Mean monthly air temperature ranges from 14 ∘C
observed at 1850 m in July to -10∘C observed at 2450 m in
January. Mean air temperatures have increased by 2.3 ∘C from 1967 to
2013, but there are no trends in precipitation or streamflow (Harder et
al., 2015).
Meteorological dataRecent quality-controlled data
Quality-controlled (QC) 15 min interval hydrometeorological data were
processed from raw data measured at the recent stations in MCRB: Hay Meadow,
Level Forest, Upper Clearing, Upper Clearing Tower, Upper Forest, Vista View,
Fisera Ridge, and Centennial Ridge. Photos of these stations are shown in
Fig. 3, and Table 2 shows a list of the variables in the QC data along with
instrumentation, record length, and location for the stations. Most current
stations started measurements in 2005 and cover 11 water years (WY) from
1 October 2005 to 30 September 2016 (WY2006 to WY2016) with two exceptions:
Upper Clearing Tower and Fisera Ridge; the former started data collection on
21 October 2007 and the latter started data collection on 13 October 2006. The
QC data were generated by applying a quality assurance procedure to remove
erroneous data in the 15 min raw data. Table 3 lists the QC thresholds used
to remove (1) measurements outside of defined maximum and minimum ranges,
(2) measurements that exceed a rate of change (ROC) limit, and (3) constant
measurements due to sensor failure. In the QC data, values of -9999 denote
the measurements removed from the raw data. In addition, daily QC soil
moisture is provided for 11 water years from the Level Forest station and
8 water years (WY2006 to WY2013) from Upper Forest. From 19 October
2012, soil moisture is monitored at a 15 min interval at Upper Forest and
this higher-temporal-resolution data are included.
Photos of Marmot Creek Research Basin hydrometeorological and
hydrometric stations: (a) Centennial Ridge in July 2010 (2470 m),
(b) Fisera Ridge tripod station in April 2015 (2325 m),
(c) Fisera Ridge Geonor gauge in March 2011 (2325 m),
(d) Vista View in February 2011 (1956 m), (e) Upper
Clearing tripod station in May 2010 (1845 m), (f) Upper Clearing
Tower station in February 2011 (1845 m), (g) Upper Forest in April
2013 (1848 m), (h) Level Forest in January 2010 (1492 m),
(i) Hay Meadow in February 2012 (1436 m), (j) Upper Marmot
Creek stream gauge in July 2010 (2200 m), (k) Cabin Creek stream
gauge in June 2010 (1710 m), (l) Middle Creek stream gauge in June
2010 (1754 m), (m) Twin Creek stream gauge in June 2010 (1754 m),
and
(n) Marmot Creek stream gauge in June 2010 (1592 m).
Hydrometeorological variables, instrumentation, and height from the
recent stations at the Marmot Creek Research Basin. AGS and BGS denote the
distance above ground surface and below ground surface, respectively; n/a
denotes not applicable.
StationHay MeadowLevel ForestUpperUpper ClearingUpper ForestVista ViewFisera RidgeCentennialClearingTowerRidgeCoordinates50.9441∘ N;50.9466∘ N;50.9565∘ N;50.9565∘ N;50.9569∘ N;50.9712∘ N;50.9560∘ N;50.9571∘ N;115.1389∘ W,115.1464∘ W,115.1754∘ W,115.1754∘ W,115.1762∘ W,115.1722∘ W,115.2041∘ W,115.1930∘ W,1436 m1492 m1845 m1845 m1848 m1956 m2325 m2470 mRecord1 Oct 2005–10 Mar 2005–7 Jun 2005–21 Oct 2007–7 Jun 2005–1 Sep 2005–13 Oct 2006–24 Jul 2005–30 Sep 201630 Sep 201630 Sep 201630 Sep 201630 Sep 201630 Sep 201630 Sep 201630 Sep 2016Air temperatureVaisalaVaisalaVaisalaVaisalaVaisalaVaisalaVaisalaVaisala(∘C) andHMP45C212HMP45C212HC2-S3HMP45C212HMP45C212HMP45C212HMP45C212HMP45C212relative humidity(%) AGS (m)1.862.272.15172.332.742.31.93Wind speedRM YoungMet One 50.5RM YoungRM YoungRM YoungRM YoungWind speed andRM Young(m s-1) and05305-1005305-1005305-1005305-1005105-10direction A –05105-10windsonicwindwindwindwindRM Youngwindmonitormonitormonitormonitormonitor05305-10monitoranemometerwind monitorwind direction (∘)wind speed B –three-cup anemometerAGS (m)72.452.85182.774.11A – 2.552.41Snow depth (m)SR50SR50SR50n/aSR50SR50SR50SR50AGS (m)1.651.041.761.631.591.191.03Soil temperatureK-typeK-typeK-typen/aK-typeK-typeCS 107BCS 107B(∘C)thermocouplethermocouplethermocouplethermocouplethermocouplethermistorthermistorBGS (cm)A – 5A – 5A – 10A – 10A – 5A – 5A – 5B – 10B – 25B – 20B – 20B – 10B – 15B – 15C – 20C – 40C – 20Soil heatHFT3HFT3HFP01n/an/aHFP01HFT3n/aheat fluxheat fluxheat fluxheat fluxheat fluxFlux (W m-2)plateplateplateplateplateBGS (cm)101010210Soil moistureCS616 soilCS616 soiln/an/aCS616 soiln/an/an/a(m3 m-3)moisture probemoisture probemoisture probeBGS (cm)152525Incoming solarKipp andKipp andKipp andKipp andKipp andApogeeKipp andLi-cor LI200sradiation (W m-2)ZonenZonenZonenZonen CM21ZonenCS300-LZonenshortwaveAGS (m)CM3CM3CM3pyranometer,CM3pyranometer,CM3radiometerpyranometerspyranometerspyranometers20pyranometers1.97pyranometersOutgoing solarradiation (W m-2)AGS (m)1.951.312.33n/a1.95n/a1.451.37Incoming longwaveKipp and ZonenKipp and ZonenKipp and ZonenKipp and ZonenKipp and Zonenn/aKipp and Zonenradiation (W m-2)CG1AGS (m)CG3CG3CG3pyrgeometer,CG3CG3n/apyranometerspyranometerspyranometers20pyranometers1.97pyranometersOutgoing longwaveradiation (W m-2)AGS (m)1.951.312.33n/a1.95n/a1.45n/aRainfall (mm)Texasn/aHydrologicaln/aTexasn/aHydrologicalTexasTE525MServices TB4TE525MServices TB4TE525Mraintipping-bucketraintipping-bucketraingaugerain gaugegaugerain gaugegaugeAGS (m)2.562.360.74.21.56All precipitationGeonor T200Bn/aGeonor T200Bn/an/an/aGeonor T200Bn/a(mm)gauge withgauge withgauge withalter shieldalter shieldalter shieldAGS (m)1.81.854.1BarometricBP61025Vn/aCS106n/an/an/an/aBP61025Vpressurepressurebarometricpressure(mb)sensorpressuresensorsensorAGS (m)1.251.250.7
Quality-controlled threshold values for 15 min hydrometeorological
variables for current stations in MCRB; ROC and n/a denote rate of change and
not applicable, respectively.
Hourly modelling data were obtained by averaging the 15 min QC observations
of air temperature (∘C), relative humidity (%), wind speed
(m s-1), incoming solar radiation (W m-2), and soil temperature
at either 5 or 10 cm below ground surface (∘C) and by summing the
15 min QC observation of precipitation (mm). Missing observations of air
temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, incoming solar radiation, and
soil temperature were filled using either temporal averaging interpolation or
linear regression to nearby stations. When intervals of missing data were
less than 3 h, temporal averaging was employed where the observations
of the variable 3 h before and 3 h after the missing interval
from the same station were used to calculate the average. When the missing
data interval was longer than 3 h, linear regressions were developed
amongst stations using the raw data, the regressions were ranked based on
r2 value, and the regression relationship with the highest r2 value was
selected to fill in the missing data. For missing precipitation, observations
from a nearby station were used along with seasonal precipitation adjustments
for elevation to fill in the missing precipitation. The hourly modelling data
are provided for 11 water years from 1 October 2005 to 30 September 2016. As
described in the previous section, both Fisera Ridge and Upper Clearing Tower
stations were established after WY2006, and the hourly modelling data before
station establishment were estimated. For the Fisera Ridge station, air
temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, incoming solar radiation, and
soil temperature from 1 October 2005 to 13 October 2006 were estimated based
on linear interpolation to nearby stations, and precipitation from 1 October
2005 to 16 September 2008 was estimated from Upper Clearing precipitation
with seasonal precipitation adjustments for elevation. For the Upper Clearing
Tower station, the hourly incoming solar radiation measured at 20 m above
ground is provided, and from 1 October 2005 to 21 October 2007 it was
estimated from incoming solar radiation measured at the lower-level Upper
Clearing tripod station based on a linear regression because of the location of
both stations in the same forest clearing. Figures 4–8 show the annual mean
daily air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, incoming solar
radiation, and accumulated rainfall and snowfall with their inter-annual
variability for MCRB stations for the 11 water years.
Annual mean daily air temperature for 11 water years from 1 October
2005 to 30 September 2016 at MCRB stations: (a) Centennial Ridge,
(b) Fisera Ridge, (c) Vista View, (d) Upper
Clearing, (e) Upper Forest, (f) Level Forest, and
(g) Hay Meadow. The line represents the annual mean and the shaded area
represents the standard deviation of the 11-year daily air temperature.
Annual mean daily relative humidity for 11 water years from
1 October 2005 to 30 September 2016 at MCRB stations: (a) Centennial
Ridge, (b) Fisera Ridge, (c) Vista View, (d) Upper
Clearing, (e) Upper Forest, (f) Level Forest, and
(g) Hay Meadow. The line represents the annual mean and the shaded area
represents the standard deviation of the 11-year daily relative humidity.
Annual mean daily wind speed for 11 water years from 1 October 2005
to 30 September 2016 at MCRB stations: (a) Centennial Ridge,
(b) Fisera Ridge, (c) Vista View, (d) Upper
Clearing, (e) Upper Forest, (f) Level Forest, and
(g) Hay Meadow. The line represents the annual mean and the shaded area
represents the standard deviation of the 11-year daily wind speed.
Annual mean daily incoming solar radiation for 11 water years from
1 October 2005 to 30 September 2016 at MCRB stations: (a) Centennial
Ridge, (b) Fisera Ridge, (c) Upper Clearing Tower, and
(d) Hay Meadow. The line represents the annual mean and the shaded area
represents the standard deviation of the 11-year daily incoming solar
radiation.
Annual mean daily accumulated rainfall and snowfall for 11 water
years from 1 October 2005 to 30 September 2016 at MCRB stations:
(a) Fisera Ridge, (b) Upper Clearing, and (c) Hay
Meadow. The line represents the annual mean and the shaded area represents the
standard deviation of the 11-year daily accumulated rainfall and snowfall.
Rainfall and snowfall are calculated from wind-corrected storage-gauge
observations with precipitation phase calculated as per Harder and Pomeroy
(2013).
Air temperature and relative humidity
Air temperature and relative humidity were measured using Vaisala
hygrothermometers with naturally ventilated Gill radiation shields at all
seven stations. Table 4 shows that average air temperature at MCRB for the 11
water years ranges from -1.6∘C at the Centennial Ridge station to
-0.4∘C at the Fisera Ridge station. Both stations are located on
alpine ridgetops, above treeline. Higher temperatures are found at lower
elevations, where the 11-year average air temperature is 1.4 and
3.1 ∘C for the Upper Clearing station in a montane forest and the
Hay Meadow station on the valley floor, respectively. WY2016 was the warmest,
with the average water year air temperature being -0.3, 1.0, 2.7, and
4.4 ∘C for the Centennial Ridge, Fisera Ridge, Upper Clearing, and Hay
Meadow stations, respectively. WY2008 was the coolest for the Centennial
Ridge and Fisera Ridge stations, with average air temperatures of -2.7 and
-1.7∘C, respectively; whereas WY2011 was the coolest for the Upper
Clearing and Hay Meadow stations, with average air temperatures of 0.4 and
1.9 ∘C for the Upper Clearing and Hay Meadow stations, respectively. An
example of hourly air temperature and relatively humidity from Fisera Ridge
station is shown in Fig. 9a and b.
Mean water year air temperature and total water year precipitation
from the current stations at the Marmot Creek Research Basin. Values inside
parentheses are total water year snowfall.
Example of hourly-averaged forcing data from the Fisera Ridge station
showing (a) air temperature, (b) relative humidity,
(c) wind speed, (d) soil temperature, and
(e) rainfall and snowfall for water years starting 1 October. All
data are developed from observations except rainfall and snowfall, which are
calculated from wind-corrected storage-gauge observations with precipitation
phase calculated as per Harder and Pomeroy (2013).
Wind speed
Wind speeds were measured at all seven stations using propeller-type RM Young
anemometers. The 11-water-year average wind speeds on wind-exposed alpine
ridges are 5.8 and 2.5 m s-1 at Centennial Ridge measured
(2.41 m a.g.s., above ground surface) and Fisera Ridge (2.55 m a.g.s.)
stations, respectively. Hay Meadow, located on an open grassland valley floor
(7 m a.g.s.) has an 11-water-year average wind speed of 2.0 m s-1.
Vista View station (4.11 m a.g.s.) is located in a large forest cut block
with a short sparse forest cover of young trees and has an 11-water-year
average wind speed of 1.1 m s-1. For the wind-sheltered stations
(Upper Clearing measured at 2.85 m a.g.s, Upper Forest measured at
2.77 m a.g.s, and Level Forest measured at 2.45 m a.g.s), the 11-water-year average wind speeds range from 0.1 to 0.6 m s-1. The maximum
hourly wind speed recorded during 11 water years is 37.9 m s-1 from
the Centennial Ridge station. An example of hourly wind speed from the Fisera Ridge
station is shown in Fig. 9c.
Incoming solar radiation
Incoming solar radiation was measured at all seven stations using Kipp and
Zonen pyranometers and is included in the hourly modelling dataset except for
the Vista View station due to short length of measurement. For the Upper
Clearing site, hourly incoming solar radiation measured at the top of the 20 m
tower station is provided in addition to that from the main tripod station
near the ground (1.95 m). For the sub-canopy measurements at the Upper Forest
(i.e. mature spruce forest) and Level Forest (i.e. mature lodgepole forest)
stations, the 11-water-year mean values range from 15.9 W m-2 (Upper
Forest) to 23.7 W m-2 (Level Forest). For the stations not affected by
forest canopy, the 11-water-year mean value ranges from 140.1 W m-2
(Upper Clearing 20 m tower) to 150.3 W m-2 (Fisera Ridge). An example
of hourly incoming solar radiation from the Fisera Ridge station is shown in
Fig. 9d.
Soil temperature
Soil temperature was measured using thermistors at all seven stations at
either 5 or 10 cm below ground surface. The 11-water-year mean value ranges
from -0.7∘C (Centennial Ridge) to 6.5 ∘C (Hay Meadow).
The maximum hourly soil temperature during 11 water years was
36.6 ∘C at the Hay Meadow station and the minimum hourly soil
temperature during 11 water years was -16.5∘C at the Centennial
Ridge station. An example of hourly soil temperature from the Fisera Ridge
station is shown in Fig. 9e.
Precipitation
Precipitation was measured with Alter-shielded Geonor T200B weighing
precipitation gauges at the Hay Meadow, Upper Clearing, and Fisera Ridge
stations, and it was corrected for wind-induced undercatch for the
wind-exposed Fisera Ridge and Hay Meadow stations (Smith, 2007).
Precipitation is divided into rainfall and snowfall based on the
psychrometric energy balance precipitation phase determination method
developed by Harder and Pomeroy (2013). Table 4 shows that the average annual
precipitation for the 11 water years is 627 mm (229 mm snow), 839 mm
(443 mm snow), and 1190 mm (802 mm snow) for Hay Meadow, Upper Clearing,
and Fisera Ridge, respectively. The highest annual precipitation during the
11 water years from the Fisera Ridge station was 1329 mm in WY2013 when
approximately 250 mm of rainfall and snowfall fell during the June 2013
flood (Pomeroy et al., 2016), which also produced the highest annual rainfall
(535 mm) recorded during the 11 water years. An example of hourly cumulative
precipitation, divided into rainfall and snowfall from the Fisera Ridge station,
is shown in Fig. 9f.
Historical modelling data
Historical meteorological data are available from the three sites shown in
Fig. 1. Observations from Confluence 5 (Con 5, 50.960∘ N,
115.171∘ W, 1770 m), Cabin 5 (50.975∘ N,
115.182∘ W, 2051 m), and Twin 1 (50.957∘ N,
115.204∘ W, 2285 m) are provided. These sites were established in
the
early 1960s by the CFS and ECCC. Based on the availability of data,
continuous records of hourly air temperature (∘C), relative humidity
(%), wind speed (m s-1), and daily precipitation (mm) are
included for 18 water years from 1 October 1969 to 30 September 1987. Air
temperature and relative humidity were measured by thermographs or
hygrothermographs (Munn and Storr, 1967); wind speed was measured by an MSC-type
45B anemometer, and for precipitation, Leupold-Stevens Q12M weighing gauges
and MSC (Meteorological Service of Canada) tipping-bucket gauges were used to
take measurements for snowfall and rainfall, respectively (Storr, 1973). Data
quality assurance was undertaken to generate the continuous data from the
original observations, which includes removing inconsistent measurements and
outliers, filling missing data with linear regressions to nearby stations.
Details regarding the quality assurance are provided by Siemens (2016). The
original measured data are also provided for these sites.
Snow survey dataRecent snow survey data
Snow survey data collected from transects near the recent meteorological
stations Hay Meadow, Level Forest, Upper Clearing, Upper Forest, Vista View,
and Fisera Ridge are provided for nine WYs from 2007 to 2016, except for the
Hay Meadow in WY 2007 when no measurements were taken. The snow survey data
include snow depth, density, and snow water equivalent (SWE). In addition,
the snow survey data contain field notes on land cover information of each
snow survey transect. The snow surveys usually occur monthly during the
winter accumulation period and fortnightly to weekly during the spring melt
period. Snow depth was measured by a 1 m ruler for shallow snowpack or a
3 m measuring probe for deep snowpacks, and snow density was measured using
an ESC30 snow tube for shallow snowpacks or a Mount Rose snow sampler for
deeper snowpacks. At each transect, snow depth was observed at 5 m
intervals, and one snow density was collected for every five depth
measurements.
Historical snow survey data
Snow survey data collected by CFS from seven snow courses (SCs): 1, 3, 6, 8,
11, 14, and 19 are provided for the water years from 1963 to 1986. The
location of these snow courses is shown in Fig. 1, and a brief description
for each snow course is listed in Table 5. Regular measurements were carried
out monthly from February to June, and each course consisted of 10 staked
points where snow depth and snow water equivalent were measured. In some
years, measurements were conducted more than once per month, which provided
more details of seasonal snow accumulation. Both monthly snow survey data
from 1963 to 1986 and detailed survey data from measurements more than once
per month during 1963 to 1980 are included for the historical period. An
example of mean transect SWE from historical and recent snow surveys for
alpine and montane forest sites is shown in Fig. 10.
Historical snow courses (SCs) at the Marmot Creek Research Basin from
description by Fisera (1977).
Snow courseDescription1East-sloping lodgepole pine about 9 m tall with natural openings3Gently south-sloping mature spruce, lodgepole pine, and alpine6Gently northeast-sloping mature spruce, lodgepole pine, and alpine fir8South sloping lodgepole pine about 6 m tall11Southeast-sloping mature spruce, lodgepole pine, and alpine fir14Northeast-sloping mature spruce, lodgepole pine, and alpine fir with small natural openings19Variable terrains (i.e. north and south slope, flat, and gullies) above treeline
Example of mean transect snow accumulation (SWE) from
(a) alpine and (b) montane forest snow survey transects.
The historical SWE for alpine and montane forest is from SC 19 and SC 3
transects, respectively. The recent SWE for alpine and montane forest is from
Fisera Ridge above treeline transects and Upper Clearing forest section
transects, respectively.
Streamflow dataRecent streamflow data
Recently streamflow observations were made by the University of Saskatchewan
starting in spring 2007 at the sub-basin outlets of Cabin, Middle, Twin, and
Upper Marmot Creeks and at the basin outlet after the June 2013 flood.
Measurements at outlets of Cabin, Middle, and Twin Creeks ceased in June 2013
as all three gauging stations (and 2013 data holding data loggers) were
destroyed in June 2013. The sites are now difficult to access as the road was
destroyed, the channels are unstable, and access trails are covered with
fallen trees. Flow depth was continuously measured at 15 min intervals with
automated pressure transducers, and velocity was manually measured with a
handheld SonTek FlowTracker acoustic Doppler velocimeter every few weeks from
spring to autumn. Discharge at 15 min intervals is calculated based on rating
curves from continuous flow depth and frequently manually measured velocity
throughout the spring, summer, and autumn. Hourly average streamflow
(m3 s-1) is estimated from the 15 min discharge and is provided
for Cabin, Middle, and Twin Creeks from 2007 to 2012, Upper Marmot Creek from
2007 to 2016, and Marmot Creek from 26 June 2013 to 2016.
Historical streamflow data
Daily average streamflow (m3 s-1) was estimated for Cabin Creek,
Middle Creek, Twin Creek, and Upper Marmot Creek for the historical period
from 1963 to 1986. Streamflow measurements were made by ECCC's Water Survey
of Canada at the outlets of the respective sub-basins: Cabin Creek gauge
(CCG, 05BF019), Middle Creek gauge (MCG, 05BF017), Twin Creek gauge (TCG,
05BF018), and Upper Marmot Creek gauge (UMCG, 05BF020) shown in Fig. 1. Year-round streamflow discharge was estimated using stage records from flow
through V-notch weirs on Middle and Twin Creeks and an H-flume on Cabin and
Upper Marmot Creeks (Canadian Forestry Service, 1976; Harder et al., 2015).
The Upper Marmot gauge is located higher up the Middle Creek sub-basin and
captures the streamflow generated from a predominantly alpine area. The
record for Upper Marmot Creek is sporadic due to the ephemeral nature of
Middle Creek at this location and site access challenges.
For the Marmot Creek outlet, streamflow was measured by ECCC at the Marmot
Creek basin outlet V-notch gauging station (05BF016). The streamflow data
span from 1962 to 19 June 2013 and are continuous until 1986 and seasonal
thereafter. However, the gauging station was severely damaged in the June
2013 flood (Pomeroy et al., 2016), after which no measurements have been made
by ECCC. The University of Saskatchewan restored discharge measurements at
this site on 26 June 2013 as described in the previous section. The daily
average streamflow data for all sub-basins and Marmot Creek can be searched
and then accessed from the ECCC Water Survey of Canada “historical
hydrometric data search” website at
https://wateroffice.ec.gc.ca/search/historical_e.html (last access:
1 October 2018). The Water Survey of Canada is preparing to restore this
gauge in the near future.
Active groundwater wells (GWs) at the Marmot Creek Research Basin.
GW wellStation nameEstablishedElevation (m)Depth (m)AquiferLithology301Marmot Creek Basin S5250_030111 October 19641601.412.2Rocky MountainSandstone303Marmot Creek Basin N5475_03039 July 19651669.136.58Rocky MountainSandstone305Marmot Creek Basin N6770_030514 July 1965206311.58FernieShale386Marmot Creek Basin N2507E_038618 November 1988189412.8SurficialGravel and clayGroundwater data
Three groundwater wells (GWs), 301, 303, and 305, established in the 1960s and
one GW, 386, established in 1988 are continuously monitored by AEP. The
location of these groundwater wells is shown in Fig. 1, and brief information
regarding these wells is provided in Table 6. Daily data for these
groundwater wells can be searched and accessed from AEP's “Groundwater
Observation Well Network (GOWN)” website at
http://environment.alberta.ca/apps/GOWN/. Access to the hourly
groundwater well data can be requested from the Groundwater Information
Centre at gwinfo@gov.ab.ca.
Example data
Data from the June 2013 flood are shown as an example of weather and
streamflow observed in MCRB (Fig. 11). The flood event started on 18 June and
ended on 24 June. Air temperature observed at the Fisera Ridge station was as
high as 8 ∘C during rainfall on 19 June and dropped to
0.4 ∘C during snowfall on 21 June; the atmosphere became saturated
on 18 June and stayed saturated through 21 June (Fig. 11a). Variable wind
speeds were observed at the Fisera Ridge station, changing from relatively
calm conditions on 18 June to 4 m s-1 on 20 June, then dropping to an
average of 2 m s-1 before peaking at 5.5 m s-1 on 21 June
(Fig. 11b). Overcast skies persisted during much of the flood event and
incoming solar radiation observed at the Fisera Ridge station dropped from a peak
of 533 W m-2 on 18 June to below 266 W m-2 throughout the event
and then rose to a peak of 1038 W m-2 on 22 June (Fig. 11b). Similar
depths of precipitation fell at all elevations (1436 to 2325 m) in MCRB,
with about 257 mm during 19–25 June; however, this measurement was
compromised as the Geonor precipitation gauge was overtopped on 21 June and could
not be immediately accessed for maintenance due to damaged trails and roads.
During the snowfall of 21–22 June, the depth of fresh snowpack on the ground
was used to estimate precipitation based on the assumption of a fresh snow
density of 100 kg m-3 (Pomeroy et al. 2016). Approximately 237 mm of
rainfall was measured at the Fisera Ridge station during 19–25 June, and an
8 cm deep snowpack developed at Fisera Ridge on 21 June and melted after
22 June (Fig. 11c). Rainfall and snowfall rates during the event remained
less than 12 mm h-1 and were higher than 6 mm h-1 only on 19 and
20 June, with cumulative daily totals increasing from 41 mm on 19 June to
113 mm on 20 June, and then dropping to 77 and 18 mm on 21 and 22 June,
respectively. The streamflow discharge observed at the outlet of Upper Marmot
Creek remained below 0.6 mm h-1 at the start of the flood event on 19 June
and increased steadily on 20 June, reaching a peak of 2.84 mm h-1 at
01:00 on 21 June and then falling to below 1 mm h-1 after 21 June for
the remainder of the flood event (Fig. 11d). Total discharge generated at the
outlet of Upper Marmot Creek was estimated to be 106 mm during 19–25 June,
much of which was the result of rain on snow in the alpine and treeline
elevations.
Example of hourly-averaged observations during 13–25 June 2013 from
the Fisera Ridge station at the Marmot Creek Research Basin showing
(a) air temperature and relative humidity, (b) wind speed
and incoming solar radiation, (c) rainfall and snow depth, and
(d) stream discharge from Upper Marmot Creek.
Compilation of Marmot Creek memories, real-time data, and
publications
The Centre for Hydrology held a 50th Anniversary Workshop for MCRB in
February 2013 where many of the original and recent researchers gave
presentations on a half-century of scientific research in the basin. The
centre has also compiled 120 MCRB publications and provides real-time
observations from many of the current meteorological stations. The workshop
presentations, publications, and data can be accessed here:
http://www.usask.ca/hydrology/MarmotBasin.php. In addition, a number of
recent theses contain detailed contemporary site information for Marmot Creek
Research Basin and provide results for the recent research conducted in the
basin. These theses can help familiarise researchers with the basin and
better understand its hydrology. Table 7 lists the theses that can be
searched and accessed from the University of Saskatchewan's “eCommons” website
at https://ecommons.usask.ca/.
Marmot Creek Research Basin theses in chronological order for the
recent period.
Thesis titleAuthorYearCompositional change of meltwater infiltrating frozen groundLilbæk, Gro2009Energy fluxes at the air-snow interfaceHelgason, Warren2009Unloading of intercepted snow in conifer forestsMacDonald, James2010Hydrological response unit-based blowing snow modelling over mountainous terrainMacDonald, Matthew2010Radiation and snowmelt dynamics in mountain forestsEllis, Chad2011Simulating areal snowcover depletion and snowmelt runoff in alpine terrainDeBeer, Chris2012Implications of mountain shading on calculating energy for snowmelt using unstructured triangular meshesMarsh, Christopher2012Precipitation phase partitioning with a psychrometric energy balance: model development and applicationHarder, Phillip2013Acoustic measurement of snowKinar, Nicholas2013Effects of climate variability on hydrological processes in a Canadian Rockies headwaters catchmentSiemens, Evan2016Sensitivity analysis of mountain hydrology to changing climateRasouli, Kabir2017Data availability
All data presented in this paper are publicly available at
the Federated Research Data Repository (10.20383/101.09, Fang et
al., 2018). Headers in most data files are self-explanatory, and all data are
measured in central standard time (CST) that is 6 h behind Greenwich mean
time (GMT - 6). Meteorological data are time series in comma-delimited
.txt files organised by station. Snow survey data are stored in the .xlsx
files. Historical snow survey data are summarised in a single time series
file. Recent snow survey data are organised by site for a water year. Recent
streamflow data are time series and are stored in .csv files and are
organised by the gauge station. Additional readme files are provided for
notes on missing data, data measurement periods and units, and no measurement
due to wildlife interruption. Additional GIS shapefiles are provided to show
locations of historical and recent hydrometeorological and hydrometric
stations as well as historical and recent snow survey transects.
Summary
Data presented in this paper provide support to ongoing
research in MCRB, a mountain basin located in the Front Range of the Canadian
Rockies. The data include 11 water years of hourly gap-filled air
temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, precipitation, incoming solar
radiation, and soil temperature from 1 October 2005 to 30 September 2016 as
well as 18 water years of hourly air temperature, relatively humidity, and
wind speed as well as daily precipitation from 1 October 1969 to 30 September
1987. These meteorological datasets are useful for driving hydrological
models and carrying out diagnostic change detection analysis in the basin. In
addition, 15 min quality-controlled data including other hydrometeorological
variables such as snow depth, soil temperature, and soil moisture are
presented from 1 October 2005 to 30 September 2016; these data have gaps but
are useful for diagnosing model performance in snow accumulation, soil
moisture, and temperature. Snow survey data are included for the historical
period from 1963 to 1986 and the current period from 2007 to 2016. Hourly
streamflow is provided for Cabin, Middle, and Twin Creeks from 2007 to 2012,
Upper Marmot Creek from 2007 to 2016, and Marmot Creek after June 2013 flood
from 26 June 2013 to 2016. Daily streamflow for Cabin Creek, Middle Creek,
Twin Creek, and Upper Marmot Creek from 1963 to 1986 and Marmot Creek daily
streamflow from 1962 to 19 June 2013 can be obtained from the ECCC Water
Survey of Canada's “historical hydrometric data search” website. In
addition, data from several groundwater wells in Marmot Creek can be accessed
from AEP's “Groundwater Observation Well Network (GOWN)” website. In all,
these long-term meteorological and hydrometric datasets are a legacy of
previous and current research activities conducted in MCRB and support
ongoing efforts to detect and diagnose climate change in the basin and
region, examine extreme hydrometeorological events (i.e. drought and flood),
and diagnose the basin response to land cover changes caused by stressors
such as insect infestations, fire, and forest harvesting. This dataset
ultimately serves to advance our knowledge of hydrology of the Canadian
Rockies.
Abbreviation list
AEPAlberta Environment and Parksa.g.s.above ground surfaceAWRPAlberta Watershed Research ProgramCCGCabin Creek gaugeCFSCanadian Forestry ServiceCRHMCold Regions Hydrological Modelling platformCSTcentral standard timeDEMdigital elevation modelECCCEnvironment and Climate Change CanadaGISgeographic information systemGOWNGroundwater Observation Well NetworkGWgroundwater wellsLidarlight detection and rangingMCGMiddle Creek gaugeMCRBMarmot Creek Research BasinMSCMeteorological Service of CanadaQCquality controlledROCrate of changeSCsnow coursesSRBSaskatchewan River basinSWEsnow water equivalentTCGTwin Creek gaugeUMCGUpper Marmot Creek gaugeWYwater year
Author contributions
XF cleaned and organised the dataset. JWP
designed and instrumented the research basin, and all authors collected data
and contributed to the paper writing.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
Special issue statement
This article is part of the special issues “Hydrometeorological
data from mountain and alpine research catchments” and “Water, ecosystem,
cryosphere, and climate data from the interior of western Canada and other
cold regions”. It is not associated with a conference.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to gratefully acknowledge the funding assistance
provided from the Alberta government departments Environment and Parks,
and Agriculture and Forestry, the IP3 Cold Regions Hydrology Network of the
Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences, the Natural
Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada through Discovery
Grants, Research Tools and Instrument Grants, Alexander Graham Bell
Scholarships, and the Changing Cold Regions Network, the Global Institute
for Water Security, Global Water Futures and the Canada Research Chairs
programme. Logistical assistance was received from the Biogeoscience
Institute, University of Calgary and the Nakiska Ski Area. Field work by
many graduate students in and collaborators with the Centre for Hydrology
and research officers Michael Solohub, May Guan, Angus Duncan, and Greg
Galloway was essential in accurate data collection in adverse conditions.
Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service are the owners of the
copyright of the historical meteorological and snow survey data. This paper
is dedicated to the hundreds of researchers who have contributed to data
collection in Marmot Creek over the last 55 years.
Review statement
This paper was edited by Danny Marks and reviewed by two anonymous referees.
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